A recent study from the British Journal of Psychiatry suggests that cannabidiol, one of the two active cannabinoids in marijuana, may act to alleviate the memory-impairing effects of THC, the other active cannabinoid.

The experimental design was cavalier in that researchers went to the homes of their 134 volunteer subjects and asked them to smoke their personal stash, as well as give the researchers a small sample for analysis—in the US, only marijuana provided by the government’s National Institute on Drug Abuse is approved for research purposes. Different strains of illicitly produced and sold marijuana can vary greatly in THC and cannabidiol, allowing researchers to search for a relationship between relative compound concentrations and effects on cognitive function.

Subjects were asked to perform cognitive tasks such as prose recall when sober and high and to report their mood.  Researchers then compared the performance of individuals who had smoked marijuana strains containing consistent THC levels but varying cannabidiol levels; they concluded that subjects who smoked marijuana containing greater levels of cannabidiol did not experience memory impairment and suffered less anxiety when high than low-cannabidiol users did.

The researchers concluded that using marijuana containing higher levels of cannabidiol was more advisable than low cannabidiol and warn that the trend in illicit production of the drug has been toward high THC, low cannabidiol strains in recent years.  Finally, they claim that the study suggests potential therapeutic uses for cannabidiol.

Discussion question: What are some of the differences among the sample population that could have influenced the researchers’ results?

News article: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=marijuana-memory
Journal abstract: http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/short/197/4/285?rss=1

Image credit: Drug Enforcement Administration/Public Domain

Research by Professor Rajinder Singh from University of Leicester has finally shown that smoke from marijuana, much like that of tobacco, directly affects our DNA. This research used new technology called modified mass spectrometry to determine the relationship between cancerous cells and presence of Vitamins A, C, and E.

Decreased levels of these vitamins were found to have a direct correlation with the presence of fragments of DNA called DNA adducts. These DNA adducts bind to chemicals that are known to cause cancerous cell growth.

Non-smokers who took vitamins had few DNA adducts. However, smokers (both tobacco and cannabis) showed an increased number of DNA adducts. Further, the group of smokers that took vitamins did not show lower DNA adduct levels. This finding indicates that oxidation destruction measured in marijuana smokers was significant enough to negate the effect of vitamins.

This research is groundbreaking because it demonstrates that marijuana smoke can be linked to cancer, and because it shows that irreversible damage occurs in the DNA of smokers.

Discussion Question: Why might smoking prevent vitamins from affecting DNA?

News Article: http://www.livescience.com/health/090613-marijuana-dna-cancer.html
Research Article: http://en.scientificcommons.org/41699010
Research Article: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_

Advocates against legalization have compiled an intriguing list of reasons why legalizing Marijuana would ultimately be more damaging to American society than retaining the system we have in place now.

The most pressing concern voiced by anti-legalization supporters is the belief that Marijuana is a gateway drug into harder substances like cocaine and heroin. Unfortunately, researchers have not been able to shed much light on this debate and it is still a hotly contested subject among scientists. Some studies have found that heavy Marijuana usage does have a correlation with usage of other drugs, such as cocaine and alcohol. However, other studies show that the ‘Marijuana gateway effect’ theory lacks hard evidence and any association observed between Marijuana and other substances is purely circumstantial and speculative.

Another important consideration brought up by those who oppose legalization is the fear that, should Marijuana become legal, we would experience a greater incidence of people driving while under the influence of THC. Like ethanol, Marijuana’s active ingredient, THC (tetrahydrocannibinol), is a central nervous system depressant that slows reaction time and effects sensory systems. Were an individual to drive while under the influence of Marijuana, the consequences could be equally as devastating as driving under the influence of alcohol.

Some individuals also feel that legalization of Marijuana poses a significant safety risk to the American public. Because of incarceration and arrest for prior drug offenses, those who have committed drug-related felonies or may be inclined commit drug-related felonies can be detained and kept off the streets.

Chronic Marijuana use has been shown to have negative side effects in humans, such as neuron degradation, which ultimately contributes to loss of brain mass over time and a reduction in cognitive abilities, as well as the cardio-pulmonary issues associated with smoking any organic substance. These harmful effects are another significant reason cited by those who oppose legalization. (For more information on the effects of Marijuana use on the brain see the article for Monday, April 20.)

Other fears include: an increased chance that Marijuana could fall into the hands of children if it were readily available, and the feeling that Marijuana use is morally corrupt.

Individuals and groups that do advocate legalization also have their share of opinions about why drug laws concerning Marijuana are in need of reform.

One of the most widely known arguments for legalization is the fact that the effects of Marijuana on the human body are not nearly as harmful as the effects of tobacco and alcohol. Marijuana has yet to be conclusively linked with any specific disease, where as, it is well known that smoking cigarettes causes any number of pulmonary disorders including emphysema, lung cancer, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD), as well as esophageal cancer. Alcohol, too, can be associated with a variety of diseases, most commonly liver cancer and hepatic cirrhosis, as well as gastrointestinal disease and cognitive defects.

The other well-known and well-documented reason cited by legalization advocates is the potential impact the medicinal uses of Marijuana could have. Marijuana has been shown to reduce pain in those suffering from terminal illnesses like cancer, multiple sclerosis and AIDS. Over the last decade, some measures have been taken to legalize Marijuana for medicinal purposes in 13 states in the US, including, Alaska, California, Colorado, Hawai’i, Maine, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont and Washington. (For more on the medicinal effects of Marijuana and mitigation of legalization see the article coming up on Friday, April 24.)

Many also believe incidence of drug-related crime rates would fall if Marijuana were legal. Were Marijuana possession and use removed from statutory laws and sentencing, law enforcement officers and court room officials would have significantly reduced case loads, thereby allowing them to focus on more serious, violent crimes. This would also lead to a decrease in the prison population, which already suffers enormously from overcrowding, and keep young and first-time offenders out of a flawed justice system that has the enormous potential for doing more harm than good. Some also theorize that legalization would put many drug dealers out of business, effectively reducing Marijuana-related crimes.

Some economists and policy-makers also argue that legalizing and taxing Marijuana could lead to another source of revenue. Like cigarettes and alcohol, legally sold Marijuana would be subject to taxation, which could potentially benefit the US economy.

Some advocates also argue that Marijuana could be made safe if institutions like the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulated the quality and sales of the Marijuana available for purchase. While others argue that regulation of drug use is a violation of personal freedom.

It is certainly true that each of the arguments listed here has an equally valid counterargument, however that could go on for pages. Here, I present you only with the short-list of pros and cons for legalization and I encourage you to take all these facts into consideration in making judgments about legalizing Marijuana. First and foremost, legalization is an immensely complex issue. However, studying Marijuana from a scientific perspective gives us some of the data we require for making informed decisions regarding the health, public safety and policy-change issues that are we are presented with in considering Marijuana legalization.

Discussion Question: With all of this in mind, what are your opinions on Marijuana legalization? What are your aggravating and mitigating circumstances?

Resources (news):
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/02/25/opinion/courtwatch/main4828659.shtml
http://www.scienceblog.com/cms/study-say-marijuana-no-gateway-drug-12116.html?page=2
http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/viewresource.asp?resourceID=000881

Resources (Scientific articles):
Morral, AR, et al (2002). Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect. Addiction. 97(12):1493-1504.

Fergusson, DM, et al (2006). Cannabis use and other illicit drug use: testing the cannabis gateway hypothesis. Addiction. 101(4):556-569.

From as early as 2700 B.C., different societies around the world have incorporated marijuana into their cultures. Although marijuana is most widely associated with recreational drug usage and ability to affect a person’s state-of-mind, the plant has also been used in religious ceremonies, medicine, and even in the making of textiles. Today, I would like to turn the focus on this diverse plant towards the application of marijuana in the world of medicine.

Marijuana is derived from dried leaves, stems and seeds of the cannabis plant. The main active chemical in cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which leads to intoxication. Although the cannabis plant contains over 400 different chemicals, THC is the only cannabinoid that leads to intoxication by binding to cannabinoid receptors in the brain. (To learn about more about THC, refer to the Wednesday, April 22 article, “The Science of Weed”)

While THC may acquire mostly negative connotations in taking sole responsibility for altering a person’s state-of-mind (commonly referred to as receiving a “high”), this same chemical has many medicinal values. The cannabinoids in marijuana have been documented to interfere with the pain receptors in the nervous system; thus, marijuana serves as an effective painkiller for patients suffering from a wide array of illnesses. Some of the medical uses of marijuana include:

• Relieving nausea in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy
• Appetite stimulation in HIV/AIDS patients who experience severe weight loss, referred to as AIDS wasting
• Reduction of intraocular pressure, within the eye, in patients with Glaucoma
• Relief of spasticity and pain associated with Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
• Chronic pain relief

Considering the many positive effects that marijuana has for patients with chronic illnesses, one may ask, “Why is marijuana not a more commonly prescribed pain reliever?” As it turns out, marijuana was in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia until its removal in 1942 because of federal legislation that made the drug illegal. Here are the facts for medical marijuana usage today:

• Thirteen states within the U.S. have legalized marijuana for medical purposes.
• Patients utilizing marijuana as medicine are protected under state law as long as they possess a doctor’s consent.
• Smoking marijuana is the most effective way to reap the benefits of THC.
• Smoking marijuana allows for faster uptake of THC in the blood stream through the capillaries of the lungs.
• A THC pill has been formulated to reproduce the benefits of marijuana without damaging the respiratory system as with the smoked form.
• Vaporizers have been noted to reduce toxic effects of smoked marijuana to the respiratory system, while continuing to deliver THC to the blood stream at a faster rate.
• Using a vaporizer will help conserve the effectiveness of THC, without resorting to a synthetic version of the drug.

Whether society continues to support or to oppose the usage of this controversial drug, we cannot deny the fact that marijuana has many medicinal purposes. If you suffered from any of the previously mentioned chronic illnesses, would you not want relief from your pain?

Discussion Question: Do you believe that patients suffering from chronic pain or illnesses should be allowed to possess marijuana for medicinal use? What are some of some of the advantages and disadvantages of sole legalization of marijuana for medical use only?

Links to additional resources:
http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/viewresource.asp?resourceID=000881
http://www.mpp.org/library/medical-marijuana-science-and-studies.html
http://www.drugpolicy.org/marijuana/medical/challenges/litigators/medical/conditions/pain.cfm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16637053?dopt=Abstract
http://www.acponline.org/advocacy/where_we_stand/other_issues/medmarijuana.pdf

As early as 6000 BCE Dai-Ma provided the Chinese with a source of food, consuming the seeds as a source of protein and fiber. In 4000 B.C. they began using it to make a textile called Pharmacotheon. This ancient use by the Chinese is the root from which the modern day hemp industry has stemmed.

The Scythians of Eurasia used cannabis fibers and seeds as a part of their burial and marriage rituals. The Scythians are also one of the most well known propagators of the cannabis textile industry, which dates back to around 5,000 BCE The use of Cannabis as a textile migrated from Asia, the Middle East and Eurasia to Europe and the Americas by 1271.

Near the turn of the century, Marijuana found itself deeply entangled in the social scene of Jewish and Muslim countries as a ritual intoxicant. Historically in the Middle East, Marijuana had only been used for medicinal, textile and ritualistic purposes. However, Hashish, another potent variety of Cannabis was widely used as a recreational drug in this region in 1221. The introduction of Hashish to the Middle East was a result of Sheik Haidar’s discovery of Cannabis and his subsequent promotion of the plant in Iraq, Bahrain, Egypt and Syria during the 13th century.

In 1271, Marco Polo, the Venetian explorer, traveled along the Silk Road recording his encounters with Hashish and Hasan ibn al-Sabbah. Polo wrote that he witnessed al-Sabbah give Hashish to his men before they would go on missions of ruthless murder. Because smoking Hashish inspired these bloodthirsty acts, the men were termed “Hashassins.” It is from this that the word assassins is derived. Hashish continued to rise in popularity in the Middle East from the 13th through the 16th century and was widely documented as one of the most popular intoxicants in the area, second only to wine. Upon his return, Marco Polo’s tales were told throughout Europe, and in turn, launched the beginning of Hashish and Cannabis use as an inebriant on the European mainland.

The introduction of Cannabis during the colonial period created a culture among sailors whereby marijuana became an integral part of daily life at sea. Cannabis was used by sailors to mitigate the effects of sea sickness. It was also ingested in stronger concentrations as an intoxicant to induce delirium and escape sailor’s loneliness. Industrially, Cannabis found its way onto ships through the production of canvases. In fact, the word canvas originates from the sails made of Cannabis during this time. Since then, the definition of canvas has been modified, but is still rooted in its original association with Cannabis and colonial sea life.

The 17th century was also a time in which the Europeans experienced a “Marijuana Honeymoon” of sorts. Prior to that, Marijuana usage was moderate, and only for medicinal relief from physical or psychological agony. However, widespread use among Europeans shortly followed.

In 1606 the French and the British began cultivating Cannabis for Hemp production. The Hemp was then shipped to Virginia, Port Royal and Plymouth in the American colonies and distributed across the New World. Hemp was quickly became an economic asset, and in 1619, the Virginia Assembly decreed that farmers should grow Hemp and it should be adopted as legal tender in Pennsylvania, Virginia and Maryland. By 1794 the British began collecting taxes on Hemp grown by Native Americans and much like other staple crops, the newly freed Americans began exploiting the Native American’s superior agricultural skills. Throughout the 18th century, both England’s and America’s dependence on Cannabis as an agricultural product grew at an exponential pace.

Meanwhile, on the European continent, Napoleon Bonaparte of France declared a complete prohibition of Hemp production and import. This ban was enacted because France was attempting to seize Egypt in order to gain access to trade interests in India, and the Egyptians habitually smoked Hashish. When France retreated from Egypt, the returning soldiers brought Hashish back with them and established a preference for Hashish smoking over alcohol consumption, for Hashish induces similar effects as alcohol without the nasty hangover in the morning.

By this time, the use of Cannabis across Europe and the Americas was rampant. The plant had established itself as an agricultural staple, an economic asset, and an incentive upon which wars and conquest were based. Cannabis was also becoming one of the most popular inebriants in the world, second only to alcohol.

From the 18th to 19th century, American popular cultural began to shift its preference of intoxicants beyond simply Cannabis and alcohol. At the turn of the 20th century, the Pure Food and Drug Act was passed, regulating all products containing alcohol, cocaine, opiates and Cannabis. This contained the eminent “Marijuana epidemic” until the Mexican Revolution of 1910, when American Culture truly took to the recreational use of Marijuana. In the early years of recreational weed use, the plant was associated with immigrants. As a result the propaganda against weed was riddled with racism. Cries of the “Marijuana menace” affected the public greatly. However, even as the Marijuana trend began to slow and, after a couple decades of mixed messages regarding the social implications of weed, the propaganda began to prevail, creating a prevalent racial stigma against Marijuana smokers.

Between 1915 and 1937 America experienced a sincere effort by business owners lawmakers to weed out Marijuana use from US culture. People like William Randolph Hearst and Harry J. Anslinger began lobbying for regulative acts and, in 1937, managed to enact the ban. [For more information about criminalization of Marijuana in the U.S. see the Tuesday April 21 story] This ban marks the beginning of the strong, reactionary counterculture of 20th century American Youth. During the 1920s, the drug of choice among young Americans was Marijuana. Because weed was immensely popular at this time, and the fact that alcohol had been prohibited in 1918, American Youth turned to their second favorite intoxicant, weed, and let loose. The Roaring 20s thrived off of Marijuana, and as the culture became more diverse throughout the 30s and 40s, many spiritual uses of Marijuana use were called back into practice.

The traditional use of Cannabis as a spiritual drug originated in India. According to the Hindu religion, Cannabis falls under one of the five sacred plants of India. It is commonly referred to as a “sacred grass” in the Atharvaveda, a Hindu religious text prescribing charms and ayurvedic remedies, and was ritually offered to the Hindu deity Shiva.

As the commoditization of Eastern Asian traditions became popular in the United States, these spiritual uses for Ganja were adopted into American culture. This custom was particularly prevalent in the 1960s with the generation of Hippies, and was proudly displayed during America’s second largest “pot party” in August of 1969 at the rock music festival Woodstock.

To this day, the battle between enacting regulations on the abuse of intoxicants in the United States, and centuries upon centuries of Cannabis’ prevalence across the world for recreational, medicinal, spiritual, and industrial product continues. What the world can hope for is, keeping the historical uses of Cannabis throughout the world in mind, we can find a way to limit its abuse as a recreational drug in current times without banning an positive effects Cannabis may have.

Discussion Question:
With the knowledge that Cannabis is a globally ubiquitous plant, how might the United States look to foreign countries as models of how to deal with Marijuana abuse?

Sources:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/panorama/4079668.stm
http://www.marijuanaaddiction.info/history-of-marijuana.htm
http://www.a1b2c3.com/drugs/mj003.htm

See also:
The History Channel Documentary on Marijuana entitled: Hooked
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Yqyx0pCIHA

Interestingly enough, the word cannabis itself comes from Scythian origin, an ancient Iranian people that lived in central Asia whom I trace my own ancestry back to. These ancestors of mine were said to have used this plant not only for the purposes of smoking, but additionally to cleanse themselves in its smoke and weave their clothing using its leaves. As you can observe, then, the use of cannabis is anything but new to human culture.

What made and continues to make this plant of such profound interest to human beings, you may ask? For that, we must look no further than the biology of the plant that has captivated millions if not billions of minds over the millennia.

To understand the intoxicating effects of marijuana, we must first understand the intoxicating component of the plant, namely, tetrahydrocannabinol or THC for short. In its pure form, THC is a glassy solid when cold and a viscid and sticky liquid when warm. Interestingly enough, THC is an evolutionary self-defense mechanism of plants to protect themselves from herbivores (ironically, this has not helped to protect it from the reach of omnivorous humans!).

Preliminary studies have also shown that THC additionally possesses high ultra-violet absorption abilities that may in fact protect the plant from excessive UV radiation from the sun. Viewed in this light, then, THC cannot be thought of as the controversial and often-hated chemical it is made out to be in the rhetoric of today’s political and media commentaries.

So how exactly does THC produce the effects of intoxication in the mind of the user? Well, THC actually binds to a receptor in the central nervous system referred to as the cannabinoid receptor. This begs the question, why exactly does the human central nervous system have a receptor for an exogenous (or outside produced) chemical?

The answer to this question is where marijuana gets really interesting: for there to be a natural receptor for THC in our nervous system, there then must be an endogenous (or self made) chemical within our body that produces the same intoxicating effect as THC does! This revelation led to the eventual discovery of a whole class of substances produced naturally within the human body known as endocannabinoids. In fact, one such endocannabinoid known as 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) is even found in human breast milk!

This by no means serves to legitimize the usage of marijuana as a recreational drug. As we all know, there is an awe inspiring homeostasis within the body and therefore, the intentional placement of any outside chemical intoxicant into the body runs the risk of destroying the critical balance at the core of our very being. Even ignoring this, the inhalation of any kind of smoke into the lungs increases the risk of attaining lung cancer exponentially, especially when studies have shown that marijuana smoke contains even more toxic substances than tobacco smoke!

Wherever you stand on this controversial issue, there’s one thing I hope we can all agree upon: one should never associate a plant with the often-irresponsible behavior on the part of humans using the plant. At the end of the day, cannabis was just using THC to defend itself from predators; humans were the ones who decided to smoke it.

Discussion Question: What sort of evolutionary process do you think led to the formation and necessity of endocannabinoids in humans?
Please feel free to comment on anything you may have had questions on about this article.

Source Links:
http://indianmedicine.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/root/O/80265/?pFullItemRecord=ON
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5568/678
http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/318/6/347
http://grande.nal.usda.gov/ibids/index.php?mode2=detail&origin=ibids_references&therow=585292

The two major products of the Cannabis plant, hemp and marijuana, have vastly different uses. Generally speaking, hemp refers to the non-drug or industrial uses of the Cannabis plant. Plants grown for hemp have less than 0.3% of the drug THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol). Marijuana refers to the recreational drug produced from Cannabis, containing up to 20% THC.

Until the 1900’s, Cannabis was legally produced in the United States for medicines and in making clothes and rope. In 1910, the Mexican Revolution led to an increase in marijuana use in the U.S. Consequently, in 1914 the Harrison Narcotics Act was passed levying high taxes on any business associated with any narcotic, including marijuana. This act was the first of its kind to criminalize marijuana, stating that any business that wasn’t legally authorized and registered to use such drugs would now be considered culpable.
Due to continuous abuse of medical marijuana, however, the American Medical Association held a conference in 1922 to propose the Uniform Narcotic Drug Act. This initiated state mandates and regulations over the sales and possession of drugs, including marijuana and its derivatives, by providing uniform regulations and safeguards for all states.

In 1930, The Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) was formed and promoted anti-marijuana propaganda by claiming that the overt aggression, violence, and sexual behavior seen in movies were a result of the use of Cannabis. It was in 1937 that Cannabis was officially deemed illegal in the U.S.

Three crucial campaigners are responsible for this movement: William Randolph Hearst, Lamont DuPont, and Harry Anslinger, head of the FBN. William Hearst, perhaps the most famous of the three, was the owner of The San Francisco Examiner and The New York Journal. He was also involved in politics as a congressman from New York.

In the early 1930’s, criticism increased over the extensive usage of paper made from wood pulp. The public viewed hemp as a more eco-friendly option. However, switching paper production from wood pulp to hemp would have been an expensive venture. Hearst used both his political clout and influence on the media to associate hemp with marijuana.

Lamont DuPont, owner of DuPont Chemical Company, also aided Hearst’s campaign to criminalize marijuana. This new potential eco-friendly hemp market threatened DuPont’s new nylon material, patented in 1937, just as it did Hearst’s paper production. Together, with additional political power from Harry Anslinger, they were successful in connecting hemp with marijuana. Thus, Congress passed the Marijuana Act of 1937, making possession of Cannabis illegal under federal law, as well as setting the repercussions for possession extremely high. Even taxation for industrial and medical use was increased by about 100 times.

Two decades later, The Boggs Act of 1952 and the Narcotics Control Act of 1956 increased the punishment for possession of marijuana by instituting imprisonment. By 1973 all existing drug-related bureaus and agencies merged to form the DEA (Drug Enforcement Agency). In the 1980’s the “three-strike” law was established, calling for the death penalty for drug lords and life imprisonment for repeat offenders.
The 1990s saw a turn in events. In 1996, medical marijuana was legalized under the Oakland Cannabis Buyers’ Cooperative, however this decision was overturned by the Supreme Court in 1998 when a lawsuit was filed against the cooperative for violation of federal drug laws.

Although in the last century many efforts have been made to decriminalize marijuana, governmental regulations regarding drug control have only increased. In fact, this is a major reason behind the War on Drugs. As a prohibition campaign by President Richard Nixon, the War on Drugs (a phrase coined by President Nixon in 1969) was intended to strengthen anti-drug policies and laws in the U.S., while simultaneously attempting to decrease the crime, violence, and international smuggling caused by illegal drugs. And there is no doubt that drug dealing is associated with extreme violence.

Today, the term Drug War refers to the violence within the drug community: the drug dealers, users, smugglers and producers. The violence caused by drug money and smuggling territories is said to know no bounds. Drug activity by infamous Mexican cartels, such as the Gulf Cartel, has led to the deployment of nearly 50,000 Mexican Army troops to territories in Mexico that have long been controlled by dangerous drug dealers. Due to such activity, the Mexican Border has recently been declared by the State Department to be as dangerous as the terrorism-stricken Pakistan-Afghanistan border. In the past 2 years, over ten thousand people, troops and civilians alike, have been killed in these areas. This number is more than twice the number lost in the war in Iraq.

On April 17th, President Obama recognized that the U.S. has been playing a frightening role in the proliferation of drug-related violence, revealing that about 90% of the weapons confiscated by drug traffickers have come from the U.S. The White House is still drafting the details on how the government plans to allocate funds and resources to help curb weapon smuggling and border trafficking.

But should marijuana be associated with harder drugs like cocaine and heroin? Research shows that on a scale of addictiveness and mental impairment, marijuana rates well below alcohol and nicotine (Nutt D, et. al (2007).

While marijuana may not appear to cause as much damage as more harmful drugs like cocaine and heroin, the association created between it and other illicit drugs has made it just as dangerous. Because smuggling marijuana does have the same repercussions as smuggling other drugs, it is necessary to include the damage caused by its sale and production with the damage caused by the sale and production of more dangerous drugs. Therefore marijuana may be considered an aggravating factor in the overall loss of life and damage to the economy caused by drug sales and trafficking in this country.

If the U.S. hopes to fix these problems and put an end to the violence and criminal activity associated with illegal drugs, international collaboration is needed find a more finite solution to this very pressing issue.

Discussion Questions: Do you think marijuana should be legal in this country? Why or why not? Given that marijuana trafficking contributes to drug-related violence, should marijuana possession be treated as a felony or misdemeanor?

References and Further Reading:

http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs21/21137/marijuana.htm#Start
http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/marijuana.htm
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/61ae3428-2ae8-11de-8415-00144feabdc0.html
http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/people/anslinger/traffic/appendix1.htm

Good Cop, Bad Cop: Federal Prosecution of State-Legalized Medical Marijuana Use after United States v. Lopez Alistair E. Newbern California Law Review, Vol. 88, No. 5 (Oct., 2000), pp. 1575-1634 Published by: California Law Review, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3481266

“Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse”. Nutt D, et. al (2007) Lancet 369 (9566): 1047–53. http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(07)60464-4/fulltext

Almost one year ago, researchers from ORYGEN Research Centre and the Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre performed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) on 15 men that had smoked 5 joints daily for more than 10 years. The results of these men (average age of 39.8 years) was compared with the MRIs of 16 individuals who were not cannabis users (average age of 36.4 years). The participants of the survey were also required to take a verbal memory test and checked for symptoms of psychotic disorders, such as schizophrenia and psychosis.

The hippocampus, which regulates emotion and memory in the brain, and the amygdala, which influences fear and aggression, was shown to decrease with cannabis users. The hippocampus had an average volume of 12% less in cannabis users than nonsmokers, and the amygdala’s volume was reduced around 7.1%. Cannabis users were found to have more sub-threshold symptoms for psychotic disorders, and they also had inferior performance on the verbal memory test. The authors explained that the regional brain volume differences did not contribute to the significant discrepancy on verbal memory test performance. The authors also mention that mild to modest use of cannabis does not have significant neurotoxic effects.

Cannabis proves to be much more harmful to teens and young adults. Researchers discovered that young users have abnormal brain development, resulting in anomalies “in areas of the brain that interconnect brain regions involved in memory, attention, decision-making, language and executive functioning skills.” To a teen or young adult, this is extremely detrimental due to the brain development and maturation that occurs in this stage of life. Certain critical areas of the brain that develop in the latter stages of adolescence are heavily damaged in cannabis users.

Fourteen users of cannabis and fourteen healthy controls, both groups with an average age of 19, had their results of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) compared. DTI is a form of MRI scanning that measures water movement through brain tissues. The myelin sheath that surrounds neurotissues and brain cells was either damaged or had arrested development in cannabis users. Myelin contributes color to the white matter of the brain and covers fibers that connect brain regions. The study leader, Dr. Manzar Ashtari, explained “Abnormal white matter development could slow information transfer in the brain and affect cognitive functions.”

Regular use of cannabis may increase the risk of stroke as well, in part due to the aforementioned consequences of cannabis use. Marijuana use also has a slew of cardiovascular effects such as tachycardia (rapid heartbeat), excessively high or low blood pressure, and loss of oxygen-carrying ability for red blood cells. A protein which raises levels of blood fats related to stroke and heart attack is also raised as a cannabis smoker. Also, within an hour of smoking marijuana, the smoker’s chance of getting a heart attack is quadrupled.

The negative effects of marijuana seem to greatly outweigh its positive effects, unless the user has been prescribed medicinal marijuana for a particular condition. With all of these potential risks, marijuana users may need to ask themselves, “is this ‘happy place’ really worth it?”

Discussion Question: Why do you think so many marijuana users are unaware of the dangers of marijuana?
Articles:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080602160845.htm
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090202175105.htm
Journal References:

http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/65/6/694
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8T-4V74K3P-2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=0201e5732b322070f213eb381e4af414